Growing up in the 1980s, Crystal Smith felt supported and nourished by her community, the Haisla Nation along the shores of Kitimat, British Columbia. But at the same time, she also sensed the outside world had placed some limitations on her future. 

“I enjoyed a wonderful childhood with a solid foundation and lots of love, especially from my grandma Cecilia Smith. She raised me because I lost my mother and stepdad at a young age. But it wasn’t popular to be Indigenous when I grew up,” says Smith.  

“A lot of people would talk about how Indigenous people were not expected to be successful. That kind of talk really affected my confidence about what I could be.” 

Smith, now the Haisla Nation’s elected chief councillor, never wants children in her community to feel those constraints.  

Her community has seized on a major opportunity to build prosperity and resiliency for future generations. The Haisla Nation is a partner in the proposed $3.4 billion Cedar LNG project, the world’s first to have Indigenous ownership. A final go-ahead decision for the project to proceed is expected by the middle of this year.  

Smith, who has served as board chair of the First Nations LNG Alliance since 2019, has already seen tangible changes in her community since the project was announced. 

“It’s hard to put into words about the impact on the ground in terms of how this opportunity has affected our members in their lives,” she says.  

“We were just interviewing candidates to serve as board directors on our economic development corporation and one candidate, who is from our community, just amazed me with how far he has come in terms of pursuing his education and how much his career has progressed.” 

Of her own career, Smith says she knew since college that her future was in serving the community. She started working in the Haisla band administration in 2009 and was first elected chief councillor in 2017.  

“I was lucky because my family really pushed me to seek an education after high school, so I took the business program at Coast Mountain College. I also helped that I had mentors in my community, including my father Albert Robinson, who served as an elected Haisla councillor, and Ellis Ross (now an elected MLA in B.C), who was very inspiring in terms of his vision as chief councillor and encouraged me to take the step into elected office,” Smith says.  

“When I came back to the community from school, I knew I would end up working in our band office. I wanted to see more opportunities for people in my community and LNG provides that.” 

She already sees the benefits of the development, as well as the Haisla Nation’s participation in the LNG Canada project, within her own family including for her grandsons.  

“Xavier is six and he goes to the same school I attended as a child. He gets to learn parts of our culture, our teachings, as well as the value and importance of family and community. There’s more of an emphasis on our language and culture in the curriculum, which really makes me happy. Luka, who just turned two, will also attend that school when he’s old enough,” Smith says.  

“I want programs and services to meet our needs, not the level of government’s needs. And we need to make sure that it is sustainable not just for my grandsons or their peers but for seven generations beyond this one.” 

Cedar LNG is coming closer and closer to fruition, with all permits in place and early construction underway.  

An eight-kilometre pipeline will be built connecting the recently completed Coastal GasLink pipeline to deliver natural gas to the floating Cedar LNG terminal located along the Douglas Channel near Kitimat.  

The facility will be capable of producing up to three million tonnes of liquefied natural gas every year, which will be transported by carriers through the Douglas Channel to Hecate Straight, using the existing deepwater shipping lane, to reach customers in the Asia-Pacific region.  

Powered entirely by renewable energy from BC Hydro, Cedar LNG will be one of the lowest carbon intensity LNG facilities in the world. Its so-called emissions intensity will be 0.08 per cent CO2 per tonne, compared to the global average of 0.35 per cent per tonne. 

 Up to 500 people will work on the project during the peak of construction. Approximately 100 people will be working at the facility full-time during operation, which is expected to start in the second half of 2028.  

Smith says the benefits of the project will extend beyond the 2,000 members of the Haisla Nation. 

“This work has really helped us reconnect with other Indigenous communities along pipelines and shipping routes,” she says.  

“When I was growing up, our communities never had the opportunity to come together because we were separated by the territorial boundaries imposed by the Indian Act. And we were fighting each other for financial scraps from Indian Affairs.  

“Now we are working together to make our own opportunities as owners and developers of the resource. That’s very empowering and the most important part. Participating in developing these resources provides independence. It’s the only solution for my nation and other Indigenous communities.” 

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While many are celebrating the completion of the Trans Mountain pipeline expansion project for its benefit of delivering better prices for Canadian energy to international markets, it’s important to reflect on how the project demonstrates successful economic reconciliation with Indigenous communities.

It’s easy to forget how we got here.

The history of Trans Mountain has been fraught with obstacles and delays that could have killed the project, but it survived. This stands in contrast to other pipelines such as Energy East and Keystone XL.

Starting in 2012, proponent Kinder Morgan Canada engaged in consultation with multiple parties – including many First Nation and Métis communities – on potential project impacts.

According to Trans Mountain, there have been 73,000 points of contact with Indigenous communities throughout Alberta and British Columbia as the expansion was developed and constructed. The new federal government owners of the pipeline committed to ongoing consultation during early construction and operations phase.

Beyond formal Indigenous engagement, the project proponent conducted numerous environmental and engineering field studies. These included studies drawing on deep Indigenous input, such as traditional ecological knowledge studies, traditional land use studies, and traditional marine land use studies.

At each stage of consultation, the proponent had to take into consideration this input, and if necessary – which occurred regularly – adjust the pipeline route or change an approach.

With such a large undertaking, Kinder Morgan and later Trans Mountain Corporation as a government entity had to maintain relationships with many Indigenous parties and make sure they got it right.

It was the opposite of the superficial “checklist” form of consultation that companies had long been criticized for.

While most of the First Nation and Métis communities engaged in good faith with Kinder Morgan, and later the federal government, and wanted to maximize environmental protections and ensure they got the best deal for their communities, environmentalist opponents wanted to kill the project outright from the start.

After the government took over the incomplete expansion in 2018, green activists were transparent about using cost overruns as a tactic to scuttle and defeat the project. They tried to make Trans Mountain ground zero for their anti-energy divestment crusade, targeting investors.

It is an amazing testament to importance of Trans Mountain that it survived this bad faith onslaught.

In true eco-colonialist fashion, the non-Indigenous activist community did not care that the consultation process for Trans Mountain project was achieving economic reconciliation in front of their eyes. They were “fair weather friends” who supported Indigenous communities only when they opposed energy projects.

They missed the broad support for the Trans Mountain expansion. As of March 2023, the project had signed agreements with 81 Indigenous communities along the proposed route worth $657 million, and the project has created over $4.8 billion in contracts with Indigenous businesses.

Most importantly, Trans Mountain saw the maturing of Indigenous capital as Indigenous coalitions came together to seek equity stakes in the pipeline. Project Reconciliation, the Alberta-based Iron Coalition and B.C.’s Western Indigenous Pipeline Group all presented detailed proposals to assume ownership.

Although these equity proposals have not yet resulted in a sale agreement, they involved taking that important first step. Trans Mountain showed what was possible for Indigenous ownership, and now with more growth and perhaps legislative help from provincial and federal governments, an Indigenous consortium will be eventually successful when the government looks to sell the project.

If an Indigenous partner ultimately acquires an equity stake in Trans Mountain, observers close to the negotiations are convinced it will be a sizeable stake, well beyond 10 per cent. It will be a transformative venture for many First Nations involved.

Now that the Trans Mountain expansion is finally completed, it will provide trans-generational benefits to First Nations involved, including lasting work for Indigenous companies. It will also demonstrate the victory of good faith Indigenous consultation over bad faith opposition.

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Canadian energy services association Enserva has launched its solution to solve a worker shortage of more than 3,000 jobs, including labourers, drivers and tradespeople.  

Having spent the better part of two decades working in the world of non-profit groups and think tanks, Enserva CEO Gurpreet Lail was taken aback after hearing about the sector’s labour struggles when she joined in 2021. 

“The perception outside the industry was much different,” says Lail. “This has been an ongoing challenge for a long time and our members decided to do something about it.” 

The result is a national campaign featuring the new Working Energy Portal, a sector-specific website with comprehensive job listings by the group’s 200-plus member companies and organizations. 

“This is an industry-wide challenge and we’ve found an industry solution,” Lail says.  

“We lost a lot of people during COVID and the downturn in energy prices and we’re now seeing employers fighting for labour regardless of the sector, be it energy or hospitality or technology,” she says.  

“In addition to these factors, our sector also has to address this ridiculous idea that Canadian energy is a dying industry. That’s simply not the case. The world is going to need our energy for a very long time, and we need talented people to help us innovate and produce it responsibly.” 

Enserva is hoping to connect those looking for jobs with companies that need positions filled and create a long-term solution to the shortage. 

But the portal is more than a job board. It will also serve as a training hub to provide Canadians with the right certifications, courses and a pathway to rewarding careers.    

“A lot of this is about educating people about what they might need so they can be successful in the industry, such as getting the right training and certificates,” says Lail.  

“Many prospective employers are willing to help prospective employees in order to address their needs for skilled workers. For example, if you have a clean Class 5 driver’s license, some employers who need Class 1 drivers will pay for that training.”

She says that as the energy industry continues to transform to include a mix of oil and gas and renewable sources, it needs to fill current and emerging positions in practices like artificial intelligence, robotics, geothermal energy and environmental sustainability.  

Enserva members helped create the portal in part because traditional job-search platforms didn’t always attract the right candidates or missed job seekers with real potential.  

“Companies were using websites such as Indeed or LinkedIn but were finding it difficult to get the right candidates. They’d often get more than 1,000 resumes and maybe five to 10 were suitable for interview. It takes a lot of time to sift through those,” Lail says.  

“We are supporting our members to create or increase awareness of their companies, and the jobs available. This way promising candidates will not miss a great opportunity and will have opportunities to learn more about energy companies.” 

Enserva aims to push into new areas and communities to engage with prospective job seekers.  

“We are reaching out to non-traditional areas to showcase the reality that you can have a long-term and rewarding career in this sector if you are a woman, Indigenous or come from a newer community in Canada,” Lail says.  

“In addition to this outreach, we are continuing to recruit in traditional areas, such as young people entering the workforce and attracting former energy workers back into the sector.” 

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The predominantly Métis community of Conklin has launched seven new business partnerships in a bid to lift its opportunities in one of Alberta’s busiest oil sands regions.

From drilling to heavy machinery and pipelines, the new ventures will bring an economic and social boost to the community of 300 residents about 150 kilometres southeast of Fort McMurray.

“We’d like to focus more on getting local opportunities such as training, employment, maybe some subcontracting, to build the local businesses up and build our people up for local employment,” said Valerie Quintal, president of Conklin Métis Local 193.

“We are going to be planning with each one of them how we could better serve our community members.”

Quintal is also a director of the Conklin Resource Development Advisory Committee (CRDAC), which brokered the deals with companies including Brothers HDD, Gateway Mechanical Services and Surerus-Murphy Joint Venture.

CRDAC was established in 2008 to help the community engage with growing oil sands development in the Conklin region, said CEO Scott Duguid.

The area has become a hub for development using a technology called steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), which involves drilling horizontal well pairs and steam injection to produce oil sands crude.

“It was really developed when a lot of the SAGD development was in the application or the environment assessment phase and there was a huge push for regulatory consultation and engagement with government on regulatory applications for SAGD,” he said.

Métis cultural heritage is displayed alongside a map of development activity in the Conklin region. Photo courtesy CRDAC

The area around Conklin is now home to six major oil sands projects owned by the industry’s biggest producers. This includes Cenovus Energy’s Christina Lake facility, the largest so-called “in situ” project in the oil sands.

As of January 2024, the region produced more than 550,000 barrels per day, or nearly one-third of all oil sands production, according to the Alberta Energy Regulator.

CRDAC has partnerships in place with the big players in the region including Cenovus, Canadian Natural Resources and MEG Energy, Duguid said (including a unique home construction program with Cenovus).

But the new ventures take opportunity to the next layer, with companies that service or work for oil sands producers, he said.

Duguid said the group has partnerships in place with the big players in the region such as Cenovus, MEG, CNRL, and Harvest.

“There’s a fair amount of wealth being generated in the region and out of the South Athabasca oilsands. There’s a lot of work happening,” said Duguid.

“We as sort of a community representative organization are trying to put our hands up with some of these smaller industry players and saying ‘hey, we’re here, we have community members, we have a potential workforce, we may need training, we may need some capacity to ensure that our residents can be meaningfully employed, but we can work with you and for you.’”

The hope is that partnering with these mid-level businesses will provide an opportunity for grassroots Conklin businesses to grow, he said.

Some of the revenue from the partnerships will come back to the community to support social programs such as healthcare, housing, and substance abuse treatment.

“It’s hugely significant for the community,” Duguid said.

Gateway Mechanical Services’ Dean Seiz said the company reached out to CRDAC last year to see if they would be interested in a working relationship.

“Basically, the long-term goal is to see if there are any community members that would be interested in maybe getting into the trades that Gateway does,” Seiz said.

The company, with its head office in Edmonton, provides heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), plumbing and refrigeration services across Western Canada. It has nine locations for regional offices with about 275 technicians.

“It’s a work in progress with Scott [Duguid] and the community to see what’s important to the community to make things work,” Seiz said.

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Summary

The bilateral trade in energy products between Canada and the United States is critical for economic prosperity and North American energy security. This CEC Research Brief analyzes the economic impacts in the United States that are attributable to natural gas imported from Canada.

In 2022, about 99 per cent of the U.S.’s total annual natural gas imports were from Canada, and nearly all were by pipeline. Its imports of natural gas from Canada help support fluctuating supply in the U.S. during the winter months.

In 2022, the economic impacts across the U.S. states from Canada’s natural gas exports included 7,300 jobs, US$1 billion in employee compensation, and US$2.40 billion in value-added.

Introduction

Imports and exports are essential for the smooth and efficient operation of natural gas markets in Canada and the United States. Canada and the U.S. rank among the world’s top natural gas producers, but both countries rely on one another to maintain reliable supply in domestic markets.

The demand for natural gas is increasing in the U.S. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the projected demand for dry (or consumer-grade) natural gas in the U.S. will reach 88.38 billion cubic feet per day (bcfd) in 2024. Canada is a significant exporter of natural gas to the United States.

In 2022, about 99 per cent of the U.S.’s total annual natural gas imports were from Canada, and nearly all were by pipeline. Its imports of natural gas from Canada help support fluctuating supply in the U.S. during the winter months.

The bilateral trade in energy products between the U.S. and Canada reached $236.9 billion in 2022. Canada’s energy exports comprise more than one-third of all its merchandise exports. Canada exports half of the natural gas it produces to the United States.

Canada’s natural gas market is highly integrated with the U.S. through a vast transmission network (see Figure 1). Seven Canadian provinces are directly connected to the U.S. pipeline network, which enables natural gas to flow between the two countries. In 2022, Canada exported natural gas worth CAN$24.6 billion to the U.S.¹

Canadian natural gas exports have an impact on the U.S. economy by adding value and creating jobs in states that import Canadian natural gas.

In this research brief, we explore the economic impact of Canadian gas exports on the downstream sector of the U.S. economy. The paper measures value-added Gross State Product (GSP) and employment to determine Canada’s contribution to the downstream natural gas distribution sector in the U.S

1. Data value for Harmonized System (HS) code 271121 – Natural gas, in gaseous state, from Canada (2023), Trade Data Online.

U.S.-Canada Natural Gas Trade

Most of the natural gas consumed in the U.S. is met by domestic production, but the U.S. still imports natural gas from Canada and Mexico to help supply domestic demand. Imports and exports are essential components of the natural gas market in the U.S. They provide additional sources of supply for U.S. natural gas customers.

Canada is the U.S.’s largest energy trading partner based on the combined value of energy exports and imports. Energy accounts for one-fourth of the value of all U.S. imports.

Most of Canada’s natural gas exports go to the U.S., though such exports have decreased in recent years. The emergence of shale gas in Western Canada and in the United States, particularly the Marcellus region, has changed international natural gas market dynamics, increasing supply in both the U.S. and Canada.

In 2022, about 99 per cent of all the natural gas that the United States imported came from Canada, nearly all transported to the U.S. through pipelines. In 2022, Canada exported 2.99 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of natural gas to the U.S., down from a peak of 3.78 tcf in 2002. On average, between January 2000 to August 2023, Canada’s monthly gas exports to the U.S. were 264,131 million cubic feet (MMcf).

Source: U.S. EIA (Undated c)

Between 2013 and 2020, the volume of natural gas exported from Canada to the U.S. declined. However, the export trade value rebounded in 2023 due to high energy prices. Between 2013 and 2022, Canada exported CAN$10 billion annually of natural gas to the U.S. In 2022, high energy prices coupled with high trade volume resulted in Canada exporting CAN$24.6 billion worth of gas to the U.S.

Source: Canada (2023), Trade Data Online

Many U.S. states rely on Canadian natural gas. In 2022, East Port Idaho was the largest Canadian natural gas importing pipeline by point of entry in the U.S., importing 897,492 million cubic feet (MMcf). Other pipelines include those in Sherwood, North Dakota (486,065 MMcf), Noyes, Minnesota (451,818 MMcf), Sumas, Washington State (415,186 MMcf), and Port of Morgan, Montana (261,471 MMcf).

Source: U.S. EIA (Undated a)

Economic Impacts in the U.S. from Canadian Natural Gas Exports

The study uses a two-step approach to determine the impact of Canadian natural gas exports on U.S. state economies. First, the study analyzes Canada’s share of the U.S. downstream natural gas flow based on Canada’s historical natural gas exports to the U.S. Second, it applies these shares to U.S. downstream natural gas distribution activity measured in terms of value-added and employment to determine the Canadian contribution to the U.S. downstream natural gas sector.

Canadian natural gas has provided a steady source of supply to many U.S. states and is exported to regions in the U.S. West,
U.S. Midwest, and the U.S. East.²

U.S. states receiving Canadian gas can be identified from gas volume data supplied by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). The EIA data shows natural gas imports at U.S. entry points. Using a simple analytical approach, the author determined the Canadian share of total natural gas flows to various states across the U.S. as a percentage of natural gas imported to the states in the U.S. West, U.S. Midwest, and the U.S. East regions.

2. The U.S. West region includes Washington and Idaho, the U.S. Midwest region includes Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Michigan, and the U.S. East region includes New York, Vermont, and Maine.

Source: Author’s calculation from U.S. EIA (undated a)

Natural gas can be used either as a final product (for heating or cooling) or as an intermediate product (for electricity generation or petrochemical production). The natural gas distribution sector (NAICS Code 221210)³ is used as the final consumer of imported gas to simplify the analysis of the uses for the natural gas imported from Canada.⁴ The study used the 023 IMPLAN model⁵ (software that combines data and analytics) to examine the impacts on the study area.

Table 2 summarizes the direct and indirect economic impacts of Canadian natural gas exports across various U.S. states in 2023. Direct impacts are measured as the jobs, labor income, employee compensation, and value-added attributable to Canadian gas exports. The indirect impact is measured as the jobs, labor income, and value-added occurring throughout the supply chain of the natural gas distribution industry that are attributable to its expenditures.

Across 10 states, the economic impact attributable to Canadian gas exports is US$2.40 billion in value-added, US$1 billion in employee compensation, and 10,780 jobs.

The value-added Gross State Product (GSP) impact is most significant in New York (US$649 million), followed by Washington state (US$373 million), North Dakota (US$339 million), and Minnesota (US$332 million).

The most significant impact on employment attributable to Canadian gas exports is in New York (2,286 jobs), followed by Minnesota (1,810 jobs), Montana (1,652 jobs), North Dakota (1,605 jobs), Idaho (1,211 jobs), and Washington (1,055 jobs).

3. NAICS Code 221210: Natural gas distribution. This sector comprises: (a) establishments primarily engaged in operating gas distribution systems (e.g., mains, meters); (b) establishments known as gas marketers that buy gas from the well and sell it to a distribution system; (c) establishments known as gas brokers or agents that arrange the sale of gas over gas distribution systems operated by others; and (d) establishments primarily engaged in transmitting and distributing gas to final consumers.
4. A few caveats should be considered. The analysis doesn’t employ the traditional input/output methodology of employing “expenditure shocks” in evaluating the U.S. economic impact attributable to Canadian natural gas exports to the U.S. states. The paper uses a simplified methodology of determining the Canadian share of the total U.S. downstream natural gas distribution flow based on trade patterns of natural gas across various states. Another caveat is that the downstream gas distribution sector can replace Canadian exported natural gas with interstate imports or imports from other countries, creating a “substitution effect.” Replacing imports from other sources can create the same impact and preserve the jobs in the sector.
5. For more information on the IMPLAN modeling process, visit https://IMPLAN.com.

Source: Author’s calculations using the IMPLAN modelling system. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding

Conclusion

Canadian natural gas exports to the United States have a critical impact on many states. The United States and Canada have strong and valuable energy links. The impact of these links should be emphasized in any discussions about the role of energy in both countries’ economies. Canadian natural gas exports to the U.S. generate spin-off effects in many states across the U.S. West, Midwest, and East.

The direct and indirect economic impacts of Canadian natural gas exports to U.S. states in 2023 included 7,300 jobs, US$1 billion in employee compensation, and US$2.40 billion in value-added.

A robust energy industry is critical to economic prosperity. Natural gas plays a key role in the bilateral trade in energy between Canada and the United States—and in North America’s overall energy security

CEC Research Briefs

Canadian Energy Centre (CEC) Research Briefs are contextual explanations of data as they relate to Canadian energy. They are statistical analyses released periodically to provide context on energy issues for investors, policymakers, and the public. The source of profiled data depends on the specific issue.

About the author

This CEC Research Brief was compiled by Ven Venkatachalam, Director of Research, Canadian Energy Centre.

Acknowledgements

The author and the Canadian Energy Centre would like to thank and acknowledge the assistance of two reviewers in reviewing the data and research for this Research Brief

References

Canada (2023). Trade Data Online. Government of Canada <https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/trade-data-online/en>;  Canada (undated). “Canada-United States Relations,” Government of Canada. <https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/us-eu/relations.aspx?lang=eng>; United States, Office of International Trade Commission [OITC] (2023). “Market Overview” (November 3). Canada – Country Commercial Guide. OITC. Government of the United States, Department of Commerce. <https://www.trade.gov/knowledge-product/canada-market-overview>; IMPLAN (2021). Gas Industry: Regions and Results, Custom Tabulation. IMPLAN <https://implan.com/>; U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA] (2022). “Natural Gas Imports from Canada Continue Providing Winter Reliability to U.S. Markets.” Today in Energy (November 22). EIA. <https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=54759>; U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA] (Undated a). “International & Interstate Movements of Natural Gas by State.” Natural Gas. EIA <https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_ist_a2dcu_SID_a.htm>; U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA] (Undated b). “Natural Gas Explained: Where Our Natural Gas Comes From.” Basics. EIA. <https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/where-our-natural-gas-comes-from.php>; U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA] (Undated c). “U.S. Natural Gas Pipeline Imports from Canada.” Natural Gas. EIA. <https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9102cn2m.htm>.

Creative Commons Copyright

Research and data from the Canadian Energy Centre (CEC) is available for public usage under creative commons copyright terms with attribution to the CEC. Attribution and specific restrictions on usage including non-commercial use only and no changes to material should follow guidelines enunciated by Creative Commons here: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs CC BY-NC-ND.

The Indigenous Resource Network (IRN) is pushing back on Canada’s proposed framework to cap emissions from the oil and gas sector.  

IRN executive director John Desjarlais says the proposal directly contradicts Canada’s support for the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UNDRIP). 

He says the plan would cap opportunity for Indigenous communities as more take on ownership positions in major energy projects from oil and gas pipelines to liquefied natural gas terminals and carbon capture and storage projects. 

Here’s what Desjarlais told CEC.  

CEC: From the perspective of Indigenous communities across Canada who are involved in natural resources development, what’s your take on the federal government’s proposed oil and gas emissions cap?  

John Desjarlais: There’s a lot of confidence that it will curtail production as well, and obvious concern that it’s going to mean less opportunity.  

We’ve heard from communities that are saying we’re involved already in emissions reduction. There are communities that just want to advance their opportunities in that space. And it’s at a time when there’s probably the greatest appetite for Indigenous involvement, not just in ownership, but advanced business development and procurement. [It could] mean less jobs, less procurement, less ownership opportunity, less investment. 

There are concerns that these impacts are not being heavily understood, measured, contemplated or considered in terms of the policy development and implementation. 

CEC: How does being involved in oil and gas development benefit Indigenous communities?  

JD: There’s a suite of benefits that are coming from increased engagement, and it’s much deeper than just jobs. 

Communities are now jumping into revenue generating assets where they’re creating immediate cash flow, which is allowing them to start to self-determine and invest back into their community either through economic development or through infrastructure programming. 

The other side to it is just the capacity that comes from being involved as an owner. Indigenous business and community leaders are being exposed to the requirements and the acumen needed to successfully participate in the ownership of decision making. That’s accelerating the development of the acumen and capacity of different indigenous communities at greater rates 

CEC: How many communities would you estimate are now participating at this level?  

JD: There’s probably upwards directly of at least 100 different communities now. There are double-digit communities that are involved in at least four or five different deals that are directly involved in the ownership and the benefit side, and then there’s cascading involvement of all the surrounding communities through procurement opportunities and employment. It’s growing quite quickly. 

CEC: Why do you say the proposed emissions cap contradicts the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People?  

It’s a policy that’s created to achieve certain goals. Creating those types of targets without Indigenous oversight – not just input, [but] oversight and ownership – is problematic because it contradicts the UNDRIP action plan in terms of stepping out of the way of affording Indigenous peoples and communities the ability to self-determine; to invest where they want to invest, and to grow how they want to grow. 

We hear a lot of community leaders say, ‘we know what’s best for our territories.’ To have policy that limits our ability to make the decisions we want to make in regard to environmental and economic sustainability is a challenge. 

CEC: What would you like to see happen?  

JD: It’s a little hard to roll back and involve communities in a total redesign, but at least if we saw an understanding that there’s certainly going to be an economic impact. If there’s a production cap aspect to it, there’s going to be an economic impact to those Indigenous communities that have established livelihoods and revenue streams.  

There’s the sentiment that if the government truly is advancing this in the direction that they are, then would they consider omission of Indigenous activity so they can continue advancing their economic interests and growth? 

Ideally, [there would be] a policy that’s created in line with UNDRIP that works for communities, industries and governments in their goals. 

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A key artery in the network supplying Michigan, Ontario and Quebec with essential petroleum products has cleared a critical hurdle to continue operations. 

In December, Michigan’s Public Service Commission approved a US$500 million project to replace about seven kilometres of the existing Line 5 pipeline underwater in the Straits of Mackinac with a new pipeline housed in a concrete tunnel far beneath the lakebed. 

“The commission recognized the reality, which is the public needs the Line 5 tunnel and the products it transports,” says Jason Hayes, director of environmental policy at the Mackinac Centre for Public Policy.  

“This is how it is supposed to work, although it took more than three years to get there.” 

An energy lifeline 

The existing Enbridge Line 5 pipeline has operated since 1953. It moves up to 87 million litres of crude oil and natural gas products for use daily between Superior, Wisconsin and Michigan, Ohio, Ontario and Quebec. 

“The average person doesn’t always understand how crucial it is. We do in Sarnia,” says Scott Archer, business agent for UA 663, a local union that representing pipe fitters and welders who work in refineries and petrochemical facilities in Sarnia, Ontario. 

“Line 5 is the lifeline for Ontario and also provides feedstock for refineries in Quebec. All of our refineries receive their feedstock from it. It’s what provides vehicle fuel for private and public transportation. Trucking and the railroads rely on it. Our agriculture industry uses it to dry crops.” 

The 1,600 members of UA 663 understand that continued operation of Line 5 doesn’t just affect them or their families, Archer says.   

“It’s really the entire region,” he says. 

“We have 70,000 people who live in this town and almost all of them depend on Line 5 to feed their families and keep a roof over their head.” 

The project approval means just as much in Michigan and Ohio, where the Enbridge network supplies refineries in Detroit and Toledo, as well as propane throughout the region. 

“Michigan uses more propane than any other state in the lower 48,” Hayes says.  

“About 55 per cent of the propane that heats homes and cooks food in our state goes through Line 5 and comes from Sarnia. Half of the jet fuel used at the Detroit International Airport comes from Line 5 feedstock. It’s essential to keep our state going.” 

Additional approvals required 

The tunnel project will need the approval of the Army Corps of Engineers at the federal level before Enbridge can start construction. The Army Corps is completing its environmental impact assessment, expected for completion in 2026.  

Michigan’s attorney general Dana Nessel also continues to pursue court action in an effort to shut Line 5 down.  

“The commission’s decision is still a big win,” Hayes says. 

 “[It] acknowledges the reality for regular people in Michigan and Ontario, who need fossil fuels, and the products made from them, in their day-to-day lives right now. It makes no sense to oppose a project that seeks to make it safer to transport them.”  

The unaltered reproduction of this content is free of charge with attribution to Canadian Energy Centre Ltd. 

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Introduction

While it is well known that the oil and gas sector is an important generator of high paying jobs within the Canadian economy, some of the key demographic characteristics of workers directly employed in the sector are less well known.

In this CEC Fact Sheet, we examine some of the key demographic characteristics of workers directly employed in the oil and gas sector between 2009 and 2021, using the Statistics Canada Natural Resources Satellite Account (NRSA)-Human Resource Model (HRM).

For the purposes of our research, we define the oil and gas sector in Canada as the sum of conventional oil and gas extraction, non-conventional oil and gas extraction, support activities for oil and gas extraction, pipeline transportation of natural gas, crude oil and other pipeline transportation, and petroleum refineries. This is different definition of the oil and gas extraction sector than was used previously by the CEC, because it also includes the pipeline transportation and petroleum refineries sub-sectors. Revisions to the data between 2009 and 2021 also occurred due to the incorporation of the results from the 2020 census. There were also some adjustments to the methodology used to link census years together.

Previously, the data was linked at the level of employment, but it has now moved to linking the demographic ratios instead. The former method led to occasional breaks in the data series.

The conventional and non-conventional oil and gas extraction sector includes establishments engaged primarily in operating oil and gas field properties. This includes the production and extraction of oil from oil shale and oil sands. Support activities for oil and gas extraction include establishments primarily engaged in providing support services, on a contract or fee basis, for the extraction of oil and gas. Pipeline transportation of natural gas comprises establishments primarily engaged in the pipeline transportation of natural gas, from gas fields or processing plants to local distribution systems. Crude oil and other pipeline transportation comprises establishments primarily engaged in the pipeline transportation of crude oil. Petroleum refining involves the transformation of crude oil by such processes as cracking and distillation (Statistics Canada, 2023a).

Natural Resources Satellite Account (NRSA)-Human Resource Model (HRM)

The Natural Resources Satellite Account (NRSA) is an analytical framework used to present Statistics Canada’s existing time series data for the natural resource sector at an increased level of detail. The extraction of energy from natural resources, such as crude oil and natural gas, is included under the NRSA framework (Statistics Canada, 2017).

While the NRSA provides information on the number of jobs generated by the energy sector at the national level, the aim of the Human Resource Module (HRM) is to provide timely and reliable statistics on the human resource dimension of natural resources sub-sectors, such as the oil and gas sector in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2021).

Analysis

The Canadian oil and gas sector directly employs over 147,300 Canadians

In 2021, the oil and gas sector directly employed 147,371 Canadians. The number of direct jobs in the oil and gas sector rose from 158,483 in 2009 to 185,393 in 2014, then fell to 134,939 in 2016, the result of the sharp decline in energy prices, before rising to 160,379 in 2019 as energy prices gradually recovered. The onslaught of COVID-19 in 2020 saw oil and gas sector jobs fall back to 135,475, before recovering to 147,371 in 2021 (see Figure 1).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

At $133,293 in average annual wage and salary in 2021, Canadian oil and gas sector jobs continue to pay very well

The average wage and salary of a worker in the Canadian oil and gas sector in 2021 was $133,293. The average wage and salary for an oil and gas worker rose from $103,448 in
2009 to $133,776 in 2015, before leveling off to $129,716 as of 2019 due to the energy price slump. However, between 2009 and 2021, the average annual wage and salary of a worker in the Canadian oil and gas sector increased by nearly 29 per cent (see Figure 2).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

The average annual wage and salary for female employees in Canada’s oil and gas sector has increased by over 53% since 2009

The number of females employed in the oil and gas sector reached a high of 42,440 in 2013, dipping to 30,285 in 2020 due to COVID-19, and then recovering to 33,068 in 2021 (see Figure 3).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

In 2021, the average wage and salary for a female directly working in the Canadian oil and gas sector was $106,865. The average wage and salary for a female working in the oil and gas sector reached a high of $110,111 in 2020 before declining to $106,865 in 2021. Between 2009 and 2021, the average wage and salary for a female worker in the Canadian oil and gas industry increased by over 53 per cent (see Figure 4).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

Average annual wages and salaries for immigrants working in Canada’s oil and gas sector are on the rise, reaches $138,439 in 2021

In 2021, 24,931 immigrants were directly employed in the Canadian oil and gas sector. The number of immigrants employed in the oil and gas industry reached 28,469 by 2014, declining to 21,622 in 2016 before recovering to 26,569 in 2019. Between 2009 and 2021, immigrant employment in the Canadian oil and gas sector increased by over 9 per cent (see Figure 5).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

The average wage and salary of an immigrant directly employed in the Canadian oil and gas sector was $138,439 in 2021. The average wage and salary of an immigrant employed in the oil and gas sector increased to $143,339 by 2015, declining to $132,266 in 2018 before recovering to $138,439 in 2021. Between 2009 and 2021, the average wage and salary of an immigrant employed in the Canadian oil and gas sector increased by nearly 25 per cent (see Figure 6).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

Indigenous employment in Canada’s oil and gas sector has increased by nearly 17% since 2009, and average annual wages and salaries reached $111,037 in 2021, an increase of over 39% since 2009

Indigenous direct employment in the oil and gas sector reached 10,934 in 2014, declining to 8,016 in 2016 before recovering to 9,683 in 2021. Between 2009 and 2021, workers in the Canadian oil and gas sector identified as Indigenous increased by nearly 17 per cent (see Figure 7).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

The average wage and salary of an Indigenous person directly employed in the Canadian oil and gas sector reached $113,976 by 2020 before declining to $111,037 in 2021. However, between 2009 and 2021, the average wage and salary of an Indigenous person employed in the Canadian oil and gas sector increased by over 39 per cent (see Figure 8).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

Over 21% of workers in the Canadian oil and gas industry identified as visible minorities, earning an average wage and salary of $121,174 in 2021

The number of direct workers in the Canadian oil and gas sector identified as members of a visible minority reached 34,091 in 2014, declining to 25,992 in 2016 before recovering to 33,066 in 2019. Then, visible minority workers in the Canadian oil and gas sector fell to 28,570 in 2020, before recovering to 31,195 in 2021. Between 2009 and 2021, the number of workers in the Canadian oil and gas sector identified as members of visible minorities increased by nearly 17 per cent (see Figure 9).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

In 2021, direct workers identified as members of visible minorities comprised over 21 per cent of total employment in Canada’s oil and gas sector, compared to nearly 17 per cent in 2009. The average wage and salary of workers identified as members of visible minorities in the Canadian oil and gas sector was $121,174 in 2021. This represents an increase of over 30 per cent since 2009 (see Figure 10).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada (2023c)

Notes

This CEC Fact Sheet was compiled by Lennie Kaplan at the Canadian Energy Centre (www.canadianenergycentre.ca). The author and the Canadian Energy Centre would like to thank and acknowledge the assistance of Philip Cross and two anonymous reviewers in reviewing the original data and research for this Fact Sheet.

References (All links live as of September 11, 2023)

Statistics Canada, 2017. The Natural Resources Satellite Account: Sources and Methods, <https://bit.ly/2VZ1th4>; Statistics Canada, 2021. Natural Resources Satellite Account: Human Resource Module, 2009 to 2019. <https://bit.ly/3zAwcPu>; Statistics Canada, 2023a. North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) Canada. <https://bit.ly/3rPAnp3>; Statistics Canada, 2023b. Natural Resources Satellite Account: Human Resource Module, 2009 to 2021. <https://bit.ly/47YOjkj>; Statistics Canada, 2023c. Natural Resources Satellite Account: Human Resource Module, 2009 to 2021. Special Tabulation.

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Overview

The impact of the broad oil and gas sector on the GDP and jobs of other key sectors of the Canadian economy is not well known, yet extremely relevant to current discussions about the sector’s importance to Canada’s economic future.

In this Fact Sheet, we examine the indirect impact that the broad oil and gas sector had on the Canadian economy in 2019. We chose the year 2019 due to the availability of Statistics Canada Supply and Use Table (SUT) data. The 2019 SUTs (the latest year available) provide a detailed accounting of the Canadian economy and give information by industry, products, provinces, sectors, and components of final use.

The indirect impact is measured as the GDP and jobs occurring throughout the supply chain of the oil and natural gas industry, attributable to its extraction and investment expenditures. These economic impacts represent the backward linkages of the oil and natural gas industry to its various suppliers. Indirect impacts occur through the oil and gas industry’s purchases of intermediate and capital goods from a variety of other key Canadian industries.

Canada’s oil and gas sector indirect impacts on key industries within the Canadian economy

GDP

In 2019, the activities of the Canadian oil and gas sector were indirectly responsible for significant portions of GDP in key industries across Canada. They range from $100.9 million in GDP in in the industry categorized as food, beverage, and tobacco merchant wholesalers to nearly $4.1 billion in GDP for architectural, engineering, and related services (see Figure 1).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada Custom Tabulation of the Supply and Use Tables, 2019

For GDP, the top five industries associated with the activities of Canada’s oil and gas sector, in 2019, included:

• Architectural, engineering, and related services: $4.1 billion
• Machinery, equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers: $3.4 billion
• Banking and other depository credit intermediation: $2.1 billion
• Computer systems design and related services: $1.7 billion
• Electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution: $1.5 billion (see Figure 2).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada Custom Tabulation of the Supply and Use Tables, 2019

Jobs

In 2019, the Canadian oil and gas sector was indirectly responsible for jobs created in other key industries, ranging from 1,033 jobs in the taxi and limousine service industry to 95,122 jobs in oil and gas engineering construction (see Figure 3).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada, Custom Tabulation of the Supply and Use Tables, 2017

For jobs, the top five industries associated with the activities of Canada’s oil and gas sector, in 2019, included:

• Oil and gas engineering construction: 95,122
• Architectural, engineering, and related services: 33,845
• Machinery, equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers: 23,906
• Employment services: 15,534
• Computer systems design and related services: 13,695 (see Figure 4).

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada, Custom Tabulation of the Supply and Use Tables, 2017

Notes

This CEC Fact Sheet was compiled by Lennie Kaplan at the Canadian Energy Centre (www.canadianenergycentre.ca). The authors and the Canadian Energy Centre would like to thank and acknowledge the assistance of Philip Cross and two anonymous reviewers in reviewing the original data and research for this Fact Sheet.

Methodology

The estimates presented in this paper are the result of a Statistics Canada custom tabulation of the Canadian oil and gas sector taken from the Supply and Use Tables (SUTs). The SUTs capture and present the production of products by domestic industries, imports of products as well as their use, either as inputs, final consumption, investment, or exports. The latest SUTs are for the 2019 calendar year. The total (direct and indirect) impact of the oil and gas industry on the Canadian economy can be quantified using input-output multipliers derived from the SUTs. According to Statistics Canada (2018), these multipliers “provide a measure of the interdependence between an industry and the rest of the economy” (Statistics Canada, 2018, National and Provincial Multipliers, Surveys and statistical programs, Documentation: 15F0046X). As Statistics Canada notes, although there is a lag from the 2017 data, the structure of the Canadian economy evolves slowly, so the lag should have a minimal impact on the estimates of GDP, jobs, and output (Statistics Canada, Economic Insights, 11-626-X, No. 109, The Decline in Production and Investment in Canada’s Oil and Gas Sector and its Impact on the Economy, July 2020. This fact sheet applies the same concepts and definitions of oil and gas extraction activities as used by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), Canada 2012. The Canadian SUTs use the Supply and Use Product Classification (SUPC) system, a variant based on the North American Product Classification System (NAPCS), to classify products within the economy.

Definitions

Using Statistics Canada terminology, we define the broad Canadian oil and gas sector as the sum of oil and gas extraction (NAICS 211) and oil and gas investment. For the purposes of NAICS and NAPCS, oil and gas extraction comprise establishments primarily engaged in operating oil and gas field properties. Such activities may include exploration for crude petroleum and natural gas; drilling, completing, and equipping wells; operating separators, emulsion breakers, desilting equipment, and field gathering lines for crude petroleum; and all other activities in the preparation of oil and gas up to the point of shipment from the producing property. This subsector includes the production of oil, the mining and extraction of oil from oil shale and oil sands, and the production of gas and hydrocarbon liquids, through gasification, liquefaction, and pyrolysis of coal at the mine site. Oil and gas investment includes capital expenditures on construction, machinery and equipment, and exploration by the oil and gas extraction industry. GDP is defined as the unduplicated value of the goods and services produced in the economy. Output consists primarily of the value of goods and services produced by an industry. Jobs include employee jobs (full-time, part-time, and seasonal) and self employed jobs. The direct impact of oil and gas extraction is the effects directly attributed to this industry’s production. The direct impact of oil and gas investment is the deliveries by domestic industries to satisfy capital expenditures by the oil and gas extraction industry. The indirect impact covers upstream economic activities associated with supplying intermediate inputs (the current expenditures on goods and services used up in the production process) to the directly affected industries. (Excerpts taken from Statistics Canada, Contribution of the Oil and Gas Sector to the Canadian Economy in 2016, 2020, custom tabulation.)

References (All links live as of August 22, 2023)

Statistics Canada (2020), The Decline in Production and Investment in Canada’s Oil and Gas Sector and its Impact on the Economy, July 2020, Economic Insights, 11-626-X, No. 109 <https://bit.ly/32LbTlb>; Statistics Canada (2023a), Custom tabulation of the oil and gas sector derived from the 2019 Supply and Use Tables; Statistics Canada (2023b), Table 36-10-0478-01: Supply and use tables, 2019, detail level, provincial and territorial (x 1,000), <https://bit.ly/3mCm9nt>; Statistics Canada (2023c), Supply, Use and Input-Output Tables, 2021 <https://bit.ly/2G0S3tk>.

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Research and data from the Canadian Energy Centre (CEC) is available for public usage under creative commons copyright terms with attribution to the CEC. Attribution and specific restrictions on usage including non-commercial use only and no changes to material should follow guidelines enunciated by Creative Commons here: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs CC BY-NC-ND.

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Overview

Small business plays a key job creation role in Canada‘s economy. There is a general notion that only big companies benefit from the development of Canada’s oil and gas sector.

As this Fact Sheet demonstrates, the vast majority of Canada’s oil and gas firms are small businesses. When Canada’s oil and gas sector is healthy, the small businesses therein are able to flourish.

This Fact Sheet compares oil and gas companies by size (small, medium, and large) as measured by employee counts; it then compares the share in the industry that are small businesses; and then compares these businesses by country (Canada with the U.S., Norway, and then with the European Union.

Comparisons of Canadian oil and gas firms by size

For the purposes of our analysis, Statistics Canada defines small businesses as those with between one and 99 paid employees. Medium-size enterprises are those with 100 to 499 employees, while large enterprises have 500 or more employees.

As of 2022, for oil and gas firms in Canada:

• 96.0 per cent are small;
• 3.5 per cent are medium-size companies; and
• 0.6 per cent are large companies (see Figure 1).

Source: Authors’ calculation based on Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01

Industry comparisons in Canada

In Canada, the oil and gas sector has a higher proportion of small businesses than other major industries, with the exception of construction. As of 2022, 96.0 per cent of all oil and gas energy firms had between 1 and 99 employees compared with 93.2 per cent in manufacturing, 89.6 per cent in utilities, and 99 per cent in the construction sector. The all-industry average is 98 per cent¹ (see Figure 2).

1. The 98 per cent average for all industries is high largely because of the sheer size of the construction sector. In 2022, there were 154,252 firms in that sector compared with 51,726 in manufacturing, 6,486 in oil and gas, and 1,410 in utilities.

Source: Authors’ calculation based on Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01

Canada-U.S. comparisons of oil and gas sector company size by employee count

Canada and the United States define small businesses differently. In Canada, small businesses have 1 to 99 employees whereas in the United States they have from 1 to 499 employees.

For a more standardized comparison between the two countries, Figure 3, which includes oil and gas extraction firms only, shows both the number of companies with 1 to 99 employees and the number with 1 to 499 employees in each country.

Using Canadian definitions of firm size:

• Small business comparisons: 94.0 per cent of all oil and gas extraction firms in the United States have between 1 and 99 employees compared with 96.0 per cent in Canada.
• Small and medium-size business comparisons: Adding in medium-size employee counts (defined in Canada as 100 to 499 employees), reveals that 96.7 per cent of all oil and gas firms in the United States have between 1 and 499 employees (i.e., are small and medium-size using Canadian definitions) compared with 99.4 per cent in Canada.
• Large oil and gas companies: Corporations with over 500 employees comprise 3.3 per cent of all oil and gas firms in the United States while in Canada “big oil and gas” accounts for just 0.6 per cent of all oil and gas firms (see Figure 3).

Sources: Derived from Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01 and U.S. Small Business Administration (2023)

Comparing Canada with Europe: Number of firms involved in oil and gas

The final set of comparisons contrasts Canada with Norway (another major oil producer) and with the European Union (of which Norway is not a member). The first comparison (Figure 4a) illustrates the number of oil and gas firms in each jurisdiction, which makes it plainly obvious how important the oil and gas sector is to Canada.²

• Of the three jurisdictions, Canada has the greatest number of oil and gas extraction firms by far—small, medium, and large—at 1,162 in total.
• In contrast, Norway has just 38 oil and gas extraction firms³ and the European Union just 198 firms in total involved in oil and natural gas activity.

2. Canada-European Union comparisons are drawn from a smaller subset of oil and gas activity—oil and gas extraction only—which allows for international comparisons. 
3. Large firms dominate Norway’s oil and gas sector given that all of its oil and gas comes from offshore drilling, which is a complicated and expensive undertaking.

Source: Eurostat (undated) and Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01

Unlike Canada-U.S. comparisons, data limitations do not allow for exact firm size comparisons based on 1-99 or 1-499 employee counts between Canada, Norway, and the European Union. The best we can do is compare firms in Canada with 1-199 employees (i.e., below 200) with those in Norway and Europe that have 1-249 employees (i.e., below 250). Figure 4b breaks down the proportion of oil and gas extraction firms by size for each jurisdiction.

• Norway has just 28 oil and gas extraction firms with fewer than 250 employees;
• The European Union has 185 firms that employ fewer than 250 employees; and
• Canada has 1,115 oil and gas extraction firms with fewer than 200 employees. In other words, even with Canada’s more limited employee count, the absolute number of oil and gas companies in Canada with smaller workforces is about five times that of Norway and the European Union combined (1,115 firms versus 213 oil and gas enterprises in Norway and the EU together).

Source: Eurostat (undated) and Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01

“Big oil” is a more accurate description in Europe than Canada

This slightly modified comparison shows that smaller businesses constitute 73.7 per cent of all oil and gas extraction firms in Norway, 94.3 per cent of all firms in the European Union, and 96.0 per cent of all and gas extraction firms in Canada (see Figure 4c). Canada’s oil and gas extraction sector is thus overwhelmingly composed of small and medium-size businesses relative to Norway and the European Union.

Source: Eurostat (undated) and Statistics Canada Table 33-10-0661-01

Conclusion

Most oil and gas firms in Canada are small or medium-size businesses whether measured domestically and compared with other sectors, or in international comparisons with the United States, Norway, and the European Union.

Notes

This CEC Fact Sheet was compiled by Ven Venkatachalam and Lennie Kaplan at the Canadian Energy Centre: www.canadianenergycentre.ca. The authors and the Canadian Energy Centre would like to thank and acknowledge the assistance of an anonymous reviewer for reviewing the data and research for this Fact Sheet.

References (All links live as of July 31, 2023)

Canada (2022), Key Small Business Statistics 2022, Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada <https://tinyurl.com/2hme3n9s>; Eurostat (undated), Enterprise Statistics by Size Class and NACE Rev.2 Activity (from 2021 Onwards) <https://tinyurl.com/34auxean>; Statistics Canada (2023), Table 33-10-0661-01, Canadian Business Counts, with employees, December 2022 <https://tinyurl.com/5n82zpa2>; U.S. Small Business Administration (2023), 2022 Small Business Profile <https://tinyurl.com/3c6as4en>; United States Census (2023), 2020 SUSB Annual Data Tables by Establishment Industry <https://tinyurl.com/59u4t446>.

Creative Commons Copyright

Research and data from the Canadian Energy Centre (CEC) is available for public usage under creative commons copyright terms with attribution to the CEC. Attribution and specific restrictions on usage including non-commercial use only and no changes to material should follow guidelines enunciated by Creative Commons here: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs CC BY-NC-ND.